Papers

Cybersecurity is one of the fastest growing and largest technology sectors and is increasingly being recognized as one of the major issues in many industries, so companies are increasing their security budgets in order to guarantee the security of their processes. Successful menaces to the security of information systems could lead to safety, environmental, production, and quality problems.

One of the most harmful issues of attacks and intrusions is the ever-changing nature of attack technologies and strategies, which increases the difficulty of protecting computer systems. As a result, advanced systems are required to deal with the ever-increasing complexity of attacks in order to protect systems and information.

This special issue received several contributions, 5 of which have been accepted for publication.

Complexity
Volume 2019, Article ID 3261453, 2 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3261453
Editorial
Advances in Complex Systems and Their Applications to Cybersecurity
Fernando Sánchez Lasheras, Danilo Comminiello, and Alicja Krzemień

The challenge of this special issue has been to know the state of the problem related to forecasting modeling and the creation of a model to forecast the future behavior that supports decision making by supporting real-world applications.

This issue has been highlighted by the quality of its research work on the critical importance of advanced analytical methods, such as neural networks, soft computing, evolutionary algorithms, chaotic models, cellular automata, agent-based models, and finite mixture minimum squares (FIMIX-PLS)

Mainly, all the papers are focused on triggering a substantive discussion on how the model predictions can face the challenges around the complexity field that lie ahead. These works help to better understand the new trends in computing and statistical techniques that allow us to make better forecasts. Complexity plays a prominent role in these trends, given the increasing variety and changing data flows, forcing academics to adopt innovative and hybrid methods.

Complexity
Volume 2019, Article ID 8160659, 3 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8160659
Editorial
Complexity in Forecasting and Predictive Models
Jose L. Salmeron, Marisol B. Correia, and Pedro R. Palos-Sanchez

The spread of traffic jams in urban networks has long been viewed as a complex spatio-temporal phenomenon that often requires computationally intensive microscopic models for analysis purposes. In this study, we present a framework to describe the dynamics of congestion propagation and dissipation of traffic in cities using a simple contagion process, inspired by those used to model infectious disease spread in a population. We introduce two novel macroscopic characteristics of network traffic, namely congestion propagation rate \b{eta} and congestion dissipation rate {\mu}. We describe the dynamics of congestion propagation and dissipation using these new parameters, \b{eta}, and {\mu}, embedded within a system of ordinary differential equations, analogous to the well-known Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) model. The proposed contagion-based dynamics are verified through an empirical multi-city analysis, and can be used to monitor, predict and control the fraction of congested links in the network over time.

A simple contagion process describes spreading of traffic jams in urban networks
Meead Saberi, Mudabber Ashfaq, Homayoun Hamedmoghadam, Seyed Amir Hosseini, Ziyuan Gu, Sajjad Shafiei, Divya J. Nair, Vinayak Dixit, Lauren Gardner, S. Travis Waller, Marta C. González

Humans communicate using systems of interconnected stimuli or concepts -- from language and music to literature and science -- yet it remains unclear how, if at all, the structure of these networks supports the communication of information. Although information theory provides tools to quantify the information produced by a system, traditional metrics do not account for the inefficient and biased ways that humans process this information. Here we develop an analytical framework to study the information generated by a system as perceived by a human observer. We demonstrate experimentally that this perceived information depends critically on a system's network topology. Applying our framework to several real networks, we find that they communicate a large amount of information (having high entropy) and do so efficiently (maintaining low divergence from human expectations). Moreover, we show that such efficient communication arises in networks that are simultaneously heterogeneous, with high-degree hubs, and clustered, with tightly-connected modules -- the two defining features of hierarchical organization. Together, these results suggest that many real networks are constrained by the pressures of information transmission, and that these pressures select for specific structural features.

Human information processing in complex networks

Christopher W. Lynn, Lia Papadopoulos, Ari E. Kahn, Danielle S. Bassett

We quantify a social organization's potentiality, that is its ability to attain different configurations. The organization is represented as a network in which nodes correspond to individuals and (multi-)edges to their multiple interactions. Attainable configurations are treated as realizations from a network ensemble. To encode interaction preferences between individuals, we choose the generalized hypergeometric ensemble of random graphs, which is described by a closed-form probability distribution. From this distribution we calculate Shannon entropy as a measure of potentiality. This allows us to compare different organizations as well different stages in the development of a given organization. The feasibility of the approach is demonstrated using data from 3 empirical and 2 synthetic systems.

What is the Entropy of a Social Organization?
Christian Zingg, Giona Casiraghi, Giacomo Vaccario, Frank Schweitzer

Networks play a vital role in the development of predictive models of physical, biological, and social collective phenomena. A quite remarkable feature of many of these networks is that they are believed to be approximately scale free: the fraction of nodes with k incident links (the degree) follows a power law p(k)∝k−λ for sufficiently large degree k. The value of the exponent λ as well as deviations from power law scaling provide invaluable information on the mechanisms underlying the formation of the network such as small degree saturation, variations in the local fitness to compete for links, and high degree cutoffs owing to the finite size of the network. Indeed real networks are not infinitely large and the largest degree of any network cannot be larger than the number of nodes. Finite size scaling is a useful tool for analyzing deviations from power law behavior in the vicinity of a critical point in a physical system arising due to a finite correlation length. Here we show that despite the essential differences between networks and critical phenomena, finite size scaling provides a powerful framework for analyzing self-similarity and the scale free nature of empirical networks. We analyze about two hundred naturally occurring networks with distinct dynamical origins, and find that a large number of these follow the finite size scaling hypothesis without any self-tuning. Notably this is the case of biological protein interaction networks, technological computer and hyperlink networks and informational citation and lexical networks. Marked deviations appear in other examples, especially infrastructure and transportation networks, but also social, affiliation and annotation networks. Strikingly, the values of the scaling exponents are not independent but satisfy an approximate exponential relationship.

Scale-free networks revealed from finite-size scaling
Matteo Serafino, Giulio Cimini, Amos Maritan, Samir Suweis, Jayanth R. Banavar, Guido Caldarelli

How popular a topic or an opinion appears to be in a network can be very different from its actual popularity. For example, in an online network of a social media platform, the number of people who mention a topic in their posts---i.e., its global popularity---can be dramatically different from how people see it in their social feeds---i.e., its perceived popularity---where the feeds aggregate their friends' posts. We trace the origin of this discrepancy to the friendship paradox in directed networks, which states that people are less popular than their friends (or followers) are, on average. We identify conditions on network structure that give rise to this perception bias, and validate the findings empirically using data from Twitter. Within messages posted by Twitter users in our sample, we identify topics that appear more frequently within the users' social feeds, than they do globally, i.e., among all posts. In addition, we present a polling algorithm that leverages the friendship paradox to obtain a statistically efficient estimate of a topic's global prevalence from biased perceptions of individuals. We characterize the bias of the polling estimate, provide an upper bound for its variance, and validate the algorithm's efficiency through synthetic polling experiments on our Twitter data. Our paper elucidates the non-intuitive ways in which the structure of directed networks can distort social perceptions and resulting behaviors.

Friendship Paradox Biases Perceptions in Directed Networks
Nazanin Alipourfard, Buddhika Nettasinghe, Andres Abeliuk, Vikram Krishnamurthy, Kristina Lerman

The design of mechanisms that encourage pro-social behaviours in populations of self-regarding agents is recognised as a major theoretical challenge within several areas of social, life and engineering sciences. When interference from external parties is considered, several heuristics have been identified as capable of engineering a desired collective behaviour at a minimal cost. However, these studies neglect the diverse nature of contexts and social structures that characterise real-world populations. Here we analyse the impact of diversity by means of scale-free interaction networks with high and low levels of clustering, and test various interference mechanisms using simulations of agents facing a cooperative dilemma. Our results show that interference on scale-free networks is not trivial and that distinct levels of clustering react differently to each interference mechanism. As such, we argue that no tailored response fits all scale-free networks and present which mechanisms are more efficient at fostering cooperation in both types of networks. Finally, we discuss the pitfalls of considering reckless interference mechanisms.

Exogenous Rewards for Promoting Cooperation in Scale-Free Networks

Theodor Cimpeanu, The Anh Han, Francisco C. Santos

The amount of data available every day is not only enormous but growing at an exponential rate. Over the last ten years there has been an increasing interest in using complex methods to analyse and visualise massive datasets, gathered from very different sources and including many different features: social networks, surveillance systems, smart cities, medical diagnosis systems, business information, cyberphysical systems, and digital media data. Nowadays, there are a large number of researchers working in complex methods to process, analyse, and visualise all this information, which can be applied to a wide variety of open problems in different domains. This special issue presents a collection of research papers addressing theoretical, methodological, and practical aspects of data processing, focusing on algorithms that use complex methods (e.g., chaos, genetic algorithms, cellular automata, neural networks, and evolutionary game theory) in a variety of domains (e.g., software engineering, digital media data, bioinformatics, health care, imaging and video, social networks, and natural language processing). A total of 27 papers were received from different research fields, but sharing a common feature: they presented complex systems that process, analyse, and visualise large amounts of data. After the review process, 8 papers were accepted for publication (around 30% of acceptance ratio).

Complexity
Volume 2019, Article ID 9316123, 2 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9316123
Editorial
Complex Methods Applied to Data Analysis, Processing, and Visualisation
Jose Garcia-Rodriguez, Anastasia Angelopoulou, David Tomás, and Andrew Lewis

Decanol droplets in a thin layer of sodium decanoate with sodium chloride exhibit bifurcation branching growth due to interplay between osmotic pressure, diffusion and surface tension. We aimed to evaluate if morphology of the branching droplets changes when the droplets are subject to electrical potential difference. We analysed graph-theoretic structure of the droplets and applied several complexity measures. We found that, in overall, the current increases complexity of the branching droplets in terms of number of connected components and nodes in their graph presentations, morphological complexity and compressibility.

On complexity of branching droplets in electrical field
Mohammad Mahdi Dehshibi, Jitka Cejkova, Dominik Svara, Andrew Adamatzky

From fake news to innovative technologies, many contagions spread via a process of social reinforcement, where multiple exposures are distinct from prolonged exposure to a single source. Contrarily, biological agents such as Ebola or measles are typically thought to spread as simple contagions. Here, we demonstrate that interacting simple contagions are indistinguishable from complex contagions. In the social context, our results highlight the challenge of identifying and quantifying mechanisms, such as social reinforcement, in a world where an innumerable amount of ideas, memes and behaviors interact. In the biological context, this parallel allows the use of complex contagions to effectively quantify the non-trivial interactions of infectious diseases.

Interacting contagions are indistinguishable from social reinforcement

Laurent Hébert-Dufresne, Samuel V. Scarpino, Jean-Gabriel Young

Surviving fragments of genetic material preserved in sediments allow metagenomics researchers to see the full diversity of past life — even microbes.

Qubit transmission protocols are presently point-to-point, and thus restrictive in their functionality. A quantum router is necessary for the quantum Internet to become a reality. We present a quantum router design based on teleportation, as well as mechanisms for entangled pair management. The prototype was validated using a quantum simulator.

A Quantum Router for the Entangled Web
Bernardo A. Huberman, Bob Lund

Uncovering the structure of socioeconomic systems and timely estimation of socioeconomic status are significant for economic development. The understanding of socioeconomic processes provides foundations to quantify global economic development, to map regional industrial structure, and to infer individual socioeconomic status. In this review, we will make a brief manifesto about a new interdisciplinary research field named Computational Socioeconomics, followed by detailed introduction about data resources, computational tools, data-driven methods, theoretical models and novel applications at multiple resolutions, including the quantification of global economic inequality and complexity, the map of regional industrial structure and urban perception, the estimation of individual socioeconomic status and demographic, and the real-time monitoring of emergent events. This review, together with pioneering works we have highlighted, will draw increasing interdisciplinary attentions and induce a methodological shift in future socioeconomic studies.

Computational Socioeconomics

Jian Gao, Yi-Cheng Zhang, Tao Zhou

While social media make it easy to connect with and access information from anyone, they also facilitate basic influence and unfriending mechanisms that may lead to segregated and polarized clusters known as "echo chambers." Here we study the conditions in which such echo chambers emerge by introducing a simple model of information sharing in online social networks with the two ingredients of influence and unfriending. Users can change both opinions and social connections based on the information to which they are exposed through sharing. Model dynamics demonstrate that even with minimal amounts of influence and unfriending, the social network rapidly devolves into segregated, homogeneous communities. These predictions are consistent with empirical data from Twitter. Although our findings suggest that echo chambers are somewhat inevitable given the mechanisms at play in online social media, they also provide insights into possible mitigation strategies.

On the Inevitability of Online Echo Chambers

Kazutoshi Sasahara, Wen Chen, Hao Peng, Giovanni Luca Ciampaglia, Alessandro Flammini, Filippo Menczer